Immune System

Macrophage: Type of white blood cell that attacks foreign invaders in the body. They help to destroy bacteria, tumors, etc. Helps other cells in the body respond in the immune system.

T Helper Cells: A type of white blood cell that recognizes antigens (any foreign substance that can enter the body) releasing cytokines that activate B+ killer T cells.

B Cells: Lymphocytes playing a large role in the immune system response. Will release antibodies to fight off antigens.

Antibodies: Proteins that bind to an antigen and neutralizes it.

Killer Cells: Destroys antigens that are discovered by our antibodies.

Cytotoxic T Cells: Type of T-cell which kills cells that are infected with viruses and other pathogens.

Memory Cells: Immune cells (long lifespans) remembering attacks by certain atigens. When these antigens return, memory cells trigger a quick immune system response before the body experiences the symptoms.

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Asthma: For some, their lungs are sensitive to and experience allergic responses pollen/dander/etc. The breathing tubes in the lungs narrow restricting airflow and an individual experiences difficulty breathing.

DiGeorge Syndrome: This is a birth defect, where children are born with out a thymus gland. The thymus gland is where T-cells normally mature, and this syndrome is an example of a T-lymphocyte disease.

Aging

When it comes to aging, both genetics and lifestyle impact it.

GENETICS

In the 1960's Leonard Hayflick discovered that aging occurs on a cellular level. Cells divide and replicate over the course of our lives, but eventually loses the ability to divide and repair itself. The loss of this ability to divide is known as cellular senescence. One possible cause of aging is the degradation of telomeres, which are the pieces that caps the end of each chromosome. As the cell continues to divide, the telomeres become shorter and eventually become so short that a cell cannot reproduce anymore

HDL (known as the "good cholesterol") has the main purpose of transporting LDL (known as the "bad cholesterol") throughout our blood vessels. People with larger amounts of HDL in their body have higher chances of living longer because of the decreased risk of dying due to cardiovascular failures.

LIFESTYLE

Lifestyle decisions also play a large role in aging. An individuals decisions concerning things in their life such as exercise, healthy eating, stress, hygiene, health, and drug abuse can all impact how quickly (or slowly) they age.

WORKS CITED

CBS News Staff. (2009, September 12). Resveratrol Video. Retrieved May 9, 2010 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fWkRN-0KjeM&feature=player_embedded

Nova Staff. (2007, January 9). Aging. Retrieved May 9, 2010 from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3401/01.html

(2002, September 16). Genetics of Aging. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from http://web.riverdeep.net/current/2002/09/091602t_oldflies.jhtml

Stress

Stress: a physical and emotional reaction that everyone experiences as they encounter changes in life.

-It is the reaction of our body to sudden changes in our environment

-Stress can positively help us to deal with daily problems and help us to meet challenges, but has many negative impacts as well

-It can increase our heart rate and blood pressure, make our muscles tense, and make us sweat

Risks of Stress

-Constant stress can lead to high blood pressure, which can cause heart problems

-It can lead to migraines, depression, back pains, ulcers, and sometimes cancer

-Some studies show it can lead to a weakened immune system

Preventing Stress

1. Avoid controllable stressers

2. Plan major lifestyle changes

3. Realize your limits

4. Prioritize

5. Improve communication

6. Share your thoughts

7. Develop a positive attitudes

8. Reward yourself

9. Exercise

10. Eat and Sleep well

Managing Stress

1. Plan by visualizing expected events

2. Think positively

3. Imagine potential negative big events

4. Relax with deep breathing

5. Relax by clearing your mind

6. Relax your muscles

7. Relax with stretching and exercise

8. Relax with massage therapy

9. Ask for help

10. Find professional help if needed

Excercise Physiology

Excercise physiologists can be employed in diverse settings, such as healthclubs, recreation centers, educational institutions, etc. When working with athletes, they monitor and assess:

the cardiovasular and metabolic effects and mechanisms of excercise,replenishment of fluids during physical activity, and excercise for cardiac and musculoskeletal rehab

ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate transports chemical energy withing cells. It is produced by cellular respiration and is used in many cellular processes.

CP: Creatine Phosphate is a molecule that serves as a reserve of high-energy phosphates in the skeletal muscle (and brain). It can anaerobically supply a phosphate group to to ADP in order to form ATP during the first 2-7 seconds following an intense muscular effort.

Aerobic Respiration: Requires oxygen to generate ATP (Energy). This occurs the glycolysis, the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis: In this process, glucose is converted into pyruvate. The energy released from this process is used to form ATP and NADH. This is a ten reaction sequence.

Lactic Acid: Lactic acid is a chemical compound playing a significant role in many biochemical processes. It is also a byproduct during anerobic glycolysis. Anaerobic Glycolysis occurs in endurance activities where the muscle breaks down glycogen stored there to use for enery

Carbs, Fats, Proteins: All of these are neccessary in a diet. For aerobic metabolism, Oxygen is used through krebs cycle and the electron transport chain to make atp from food containing carbs, fats, and proteins.

VO2 Max: VO2 max is the max capacity of a person's body to transport/use oxygen furing periods of excercise. This reflects the physical fitness of a person. Physical training can increase this value and age can decrease it.

Young, untrained male: Avg VO2 max is 3.5 litres/min

Young, untrained female: Avg VO2 max is 2.0 litres/min

Heart Surgery

PATIENT HISTORY
Name: James Tall
Age: 48
Weight: 274 lbs

History of Illness: The patient is hypertension and has also smoked for 12 years now. Patient has been working constantly and is under a great amount of stress. His hours have increase from 40 hours per week to 60 hours per week. He has also recently experienced a death in the family. Patient is frequently experiencing shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting and occasionally, anxiety.

Family History: Has a family history of both hypertension and diabetes.


Tests: Physical examination indicated his hypertension. His ECG test indicated a normal rhythym, a resting heart rate of 106, A P-R interval shortening with increasing heart rate, and an overall normal QRS complex.

Diagnosis: Patient is presenting with a case of stress induced tachycardia. It has been suggested he reduce his work levels in hopes that his stress levels will work. Any form of meditation has been suggested as well. He has also been prescribed to use antianxiety medication only to be used during anxiety attacks.

Artificial Organs

Artificial Organs: Man-made organs that created to replace a natural human organ in order to restore a function or a group of related functions.

The BioLung

One example of an artificial organ is the artificial lung. A new device is has been developed that can help patients in need of a lung transplant. One medical team at the University of Michigan, led by Dr. Robert Bartlett, have developed the BioLung. This lung works with the hearts own pumping action to help manage the oxygen and blood flow throughout the body. The BioLung uses the heart rather than mechanics in order to pump blood, which allows the patient to stay active at home instead of being hooked up to a machine and sedated at the hospital. This device can also stay in place following the lung transplant until the lungs are fully operational.

Pros and Cons of Artificial Organs

Pros:

-Allows the patient to possibly conquer a disease or illness

-Has the possibility of prolonging life and making the general quality of life better

-Can help burn victims regenerate skin

-While a proper lung has not been developed, they are working on it (but now the BioLung has been created)

-Organ transplant lists will become unnecessary one day

Cons:

-Possible presence of latent or hidden disease/illness in the base tissue. There is the possibility that if foreign body tissue was used to reconstruct particular tissue matter for a patient, there could be hidden disease within that tissue.

-Ethical issues

Stem Cells

Embryonic Stem Cells: Stem cells that are derived from embryos. Most embryonic stem cells come from embryos which have developed from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro. They are typically four to five days old and in the form of a blastocyst.

iPS Stem Cells: (Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells) Adult Stem Cells that have been genetically changed to be in an embryonic stem cell-like state.

Adult Stem Cells: Thought to be an undifferentiated cell which is found among differentiated cells in a tissue/organ that has the ability to renew itself and is able to differentiate in order to yield some or all of the major specialized cell types of that tissue/organ

How scientists get stem cells to specialize in the lab:

First, scientists remove the outer layer that would generally form the placenta. These cells are placed in a petri dish. The bottom of the petri dish is layered with mouse embryonic fiberglass in order to promote cell growth. Of all these cells, only a few survive usually, and these can grow into colonies of cells. This process is called cell renewal. Then, they begin to differentiate and specialize (forming different types of tissues). Scientists are trying to control the process where they specialize by adding the growth factors sonic hedgehog and activin. Scientists are continuing to research in order to figure out the combination of signals to tell the cells what to become.

Interested? Watch this video for more information!

http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/media/creating_lines-sm.mov

Stem Cells and Disease:

Researchers hav been using stem cells in order to reverse course of Type 1 Diabetes. This is being done through injections of patients own stem cells. The research team led by Dr. Julio Voltarelli is the first to successfully treat type 1 Diabetes patients with their own stem cells!

Curious about stem cell research with other disease? Check out this site!

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/0305/03-related.html

Embryology

Cleavage the first step in the development of any multi-celled organism. Its purpose is to convert a single celled zygote into a multi-celled embryo through mitosis. Through this process the blastula is formed by mitosis of the zygote. The blastula is a basically a ball of cells that is surrounding the blastocoel (the fluid-filled center). Both the blastula and the gastrula are part of the early embryonic stages of development, but they are different from each other. The blastula is the early stage of a dividing embryo, and the gastrula is the early stage of development in which the cells split into three embryonic germ layers. To make this more clear, what happens is the following: Once the blastula is formed, then the blastopore (opening in the blastula) starts to cave in. and the cells begin to migrate to specific locations. This leads to the formation of the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. This process is known as gastrulation. During the grastula stage, the archenteron also forms. The archenteron is a cavity that is the beginnings of a digestive tract.

During grastualtion, the three layers that are formed are the outer, inner and middle cell layers.

1. Ectoderm: This is the outer cell layer. It forms tissues associated with outer layers. This includes the skin, hair, sweat glands, and epithelium. The brain and nervous system can also develop from this cell layer
2. Mesoderm: This is the middle cell layer. This forms structures involved in movement and support. This includes body muscle, cartilage, bone, blood, and other connective tissue. Reproductive system organs and kidneys are also formed from the mesoderm layer.
3. Endoderm: This is the inner cell layer. It forms organs and tissue involved with digestive and respiratory systems. Many endocrine glands (thyroid and parathyroid) are formed by the endoderm. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are also formed by the endoderm layer.

• When organogenesis occurs, this is when the formation of organs happens. These organs are formed by each layer of cells, each responsible for the formation of different organs.

An acrosomal reaction occurs when the sperm head makes contact with the jelly from an egg. This happens when the acrosome of the sperm (cap-like structure over the anterior half of the sperms head) penetrates the hard shell of the egg.

ACROSOMAL REACTION ON A SEA URCHIN CELL

A cortical reaction is the time after the sperm has entered the egg. The egg membrane then undergoes changes that will prevent any other sperm from entering into the egg.